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| =====CANNABIS CONSUMPTION===== | =====CANNABIS CONSUMPTION===== | ||
| + | Marijuana can be consumed in various ways ranging from liquid tinctures to dermal patches and oral sprays. Firstly, liquid tinctures are extracts taken from the marijuana plant that are taken orally; as well as oral sprays which could also be administered orally (Cohen & Rudick, 2007). Dermal patches are effective due to the lipophilic property of marijuana, which allows it to be readily dissolved in a fat-soluble substance and penetrate the cell membrane (Rosenthal & Newhart, 2002). The most common way of consuming marijuana is through smoking, vaporizing and eating edibles. Marijuana is often consumed by packing the dried buds into rolling paper, cigars, pipes, or bongs. Also, many prefer to eat marijuana edibles such as, weed brownies and cookies. Other less common methods of consumption include, capsules and lozenges (Rosenthal & Newhart, 2002). | ||
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| =====CANNABIS USAGE===== | =====CANNABIS USAGE===== | ||
| ====MEDICINAL==== | ====MEDICINAL==== | ||
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| + | Marijuana has three prominent usages, medicinal, spiritual and recreational. It is often quite difficult for scientists to study potential medicinal marijuana uses since it is difficult to obtain permission for human medical trials (Richard & Paul, nd). Furthermore, marijuana is currently classified as a schedule 2 substance by the federal government, making it even tougher to obtain permission (Hoffmann & Weber, 2010). In addition, far more studies regarding the potential harmful effects of marijuana have been conducted and only very minimal (6%) have been conducted studying its potential benefits (Gupta, 2013). Many studies focusing on the medicinal use of marijuana have shown varying results and despite little research on marijuana per se, it is important to note this does not imply that marijuana has no medicinal purposes. | ||
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| + | However, few case studies and research has led to promising results for potential medicinal uses of marijuana. Firstly, marijuana can be considered during chemotherapy to alleviate common side effects such as vomiting and nausea (Murnion, 2015). Individuals with HIV/AIDS may also use marijuana for similar reasons along with improving their appetite. Marijuana has also been somewhat effective in treating chronic pain and muscle spasms, including pain from neuropathy that may be caused due to fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis (Murnion, 2015). Marijuana has also shown limited evidence in treating neurological problems such as, multiple sclerosis and epilepsy. In epilepsy specifically, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) have shown to give patients relief from cases of spasticity (Murnion, 2015). In addition, some studies have shown marijuana has significantly improved tics in patients suffering from Tourette syndrome. Marijuana can also act as a supplementary means of treatment in individuals suffering from anorexia, arthritis, glaucoma and migraines (Richard & Paul, nd). | ||
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| + | Although minimal research has been conducted on cannabinoids and its use in treatment of cancer, cannabinoids have displayed anti-cancer effects in various laboratory experiments. There is ongoing research being conducted to explore different medicinal properties of marijuana. There has been extensive focus on marijuana’s effect on dementia, diabetes, epilepsy, glaucoma, and Tourette syndrome. Cannabinoids have been hypothesized to relieve some of the symptoms associated with Alzheimer’s Disease and may assist in slowing cell damage in diabetes mellitus type 1 (Caulkins, Kilmer, & Kleiman, 2016) | ||
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| ====SPIRITUAL==== | ====SPIRITUAL==== | ||
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| + | Marijuana has had a long history of spiritual use and both historically and presently has been viewed as an entheogenic. To elaborate, marijuana has been used to reach a stage of enlightenment, connection, and nirvana. Despite its rich historical use, many religions have opposing stances on marijuana, but those in support have associated the psychoactive effects that marijuana may produce with an intense spiritual experience (Bello, 2007). | ||
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| ====RECREATIONAL==== | ====RECREATIONAL==== | ||
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| + | The use of a psychoactive drug to alter one’s mind state, modify emotions, cognitions, and perceptions is often described as recreational usage. Marijuana has been long used as a recreational drug due its psychoactive effects (Bello, 2007). Today, people use marijuana for several activities and occasions, including but not limited to (Osborne & Fogel, 2008) : | ||
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| + | * Relaxing and Concentrating | ||
| + | * Making everyday activities more enjoyable | ||
| + | * Eating | ||
| + | * Listening to music | ||
| + | * Socializing | ||
| + | * Watching movies | ||
| + | * Playing sports | ||
| + | * Having Sex | ||
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| In Canada, as in many other countries, marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug (Statistics Canada, 2013). | In Canada, as in many other countries, marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug (Statistics Canada, 2013). | ||
| - | <box 80% round | >{{:rsz_1231324reqwf.png|}} </box|Figure ##: Estimated prevalence (proportion) of cannabis dependence by age, sex and region, 2010. (Degenhard et al, 2013)> | + | <box 80% round | >{{:rsz_1231324reqwf.png|}} </box|Figure 2: Estimated prevalence (proportion) of cannabis dependence by age, sex and region, 2010. (Degenhard et al, 2013)> |
| Throughout the world the prevalence was higher in males than females, resulting in an average male:female sex ratio of 1.8 (Degenhard et al, 2013). Prevalence peaks worldwide in the 20-24 years age group at between and then steadily decreasing after that age group thereafter (Degenhard et al, 2013). | Throughout the world the prevalence was higher in males than females, resulting in an average male:female sex ratio of 1.8 (Degenhard et al, 2013). Prevalence peaks worldwide in the 20-24 years age group at between and then steadily decreasing after that age group thereafter (Degenhard et al, 2013). | ||
| - | <box 50% round | >{{:rsz_1journalpone0076635g002.png|}} </box|Figure ##: Pooled regional prevalence of cannabis dependence, 2010. | + | <box 50% round | >{{:rsz_1journalpone0076635g002.png|}} </box|Figure 3: Pooled regional prevalence of cannabis dependence, 2010. |
| Note. Prevalence estimates were standardised by population age and sex; AP-HI: Asia Pacific, High Income, As-C: Asia Central, AS-E: Asia East, AS-S: Asia South, A-SE: Asia Southeast, Aus: Australasia, Caribb: Caribbean, Eur-C: Europe Central, Eur-E: Europe Eastern, Eur-W: Europe Western, LA-An: Latin America, Andean, LA-C: Latin America, Central, LA-Sth: Latin America, Southern, LA-Trop: Latin America, Tropical, Nafr-ME: North Africa/Middle East, Nam-HI: North America, High Income, Oc: Oceania, SSA-C: Sub-Saharan Africa, Central, SSA-E: Sub-Saharan Africa, East, SSA-S: Sub-Saharan Africa Southern, SSA-W: Sub-Saharan Africa, West. (Degenhard et al, 2013)> | Note. Prevalence estimates were standardised by population age and sex; AP-HI: Asia Pacific, High Income, As-C: Asia Central, AS-E: Asia East, AS-S: Asia South, A-SE: Asia Southeast, Aus: Australasia, Caribb: Caribbean, Eur-C: Europe Central, Eur-E: Europe Eastern, Eur-W: Europe Western, LA-An: Latin America, Andean, LA-C: Latin America, Central, LA-Sth: Latin America, Southern, LA-Trop: Latin America, Tropical, Nafr-ME: North Africa/Middle East, Nam-HI: North America, High Income, Oc: Oceania, SSA-C: Sub-Saharan Africa, Central, SSA-E: Sub-Saharan Africa, East, SSA-S: Sub-Saharan Africa Southern, SSA-W: Sub-Saharan Africa, West. (Degenhard et al, 2013)> | ||
| Prevalence in high income regions was much higher than that in low to middle income regions and the global average (Degenhard et al, 2013). Cannabis dependence in Australasia is about 8 times higher than prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa, West (Degenhard et al, 2013). | Prevalence in high income regions was much higher than that in low to middle income regions and the global average (Degenhard et al, 2013). Cannabis dependence in Australasia is about 8 times higher than prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa, West (Degenhard et al, 2013). | ||
| - | <box 50% round | >{{:rsz_journalpone0076635g004.png|}}</box|Figure ##: Country-level DALYs per 100,000 population for cannabis dependence, age-standardised, for 2010. | + | <box 50% round | >{{:rsz_journalpone0076635g004.png|}}</box|Figure 4: Country-level DALYs per 100,000 population for cannabis dependence, age-standardised, for 2010. |
| Note. Low: shows countries with statistically lower DALY rates than global mean; Middle: Shows countries with DALY rates that are not statistically different to global mean; High: Shows countries with statistically higher DALY rates than global mean. (Degenhard et al, 2013)> | Note. Low: shows countries with statistically lower DALY rates than global mean; Middle: Shows countries with DALY rates that are not statistically different to global mean; High: Shows countries with statistically higher DALY rates than global mean. (Degenhard et al, 2013)> | ||
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| Negative Effects: | Negative Effects: | ||
| - | Although marijuana may have some positive short-term impacts on the user, it may also bring about a range of harmful effects as well. The extent to which these effects are detrimental to the user depends on the age and tolerance of the person consuming the drug. Studies show that cannabis use, especially early onset use (before age 15), is associated with increased delinquent behaviour, future employment and financial issues, mental health problems and substance abuse (Fergusson et al., 1996). This may be due to a sensitive period of cognitive development at this age, during which the impact of cannabinoid receptors in the brain hinder normal development (Pope et al., 2003). Moreover, cannabis may be more toxic to the developing brain than it is to mature brains, causing a decrease in white matter in developing brains (see Figure x) (Pope et al., 2003). These toxic changes occur when cannabinoid receptors interfere with normal functioning of neurotransmitters in different regions of the brain (Ameri, 1999). While many scientists may consider cannabis as a potential pharmacotherapy, research shows it may actually bring more harmful effects to the user than beneficial ones (Lotan et al., 2014). Some research even indicates that frequent marijuana use can lead to acute psychosis and manic episodes, especially in individuals with pre-existing psychotic disorders (Khan, 2009). This may be an explanation as to why some individuals experience lowered anxiety while others face anxiety-inducing effects post cannabis use. It is not uncommon for those facing heightened anxiety to hallucinate, feel paranoid, feel irrational panic or have a sudden fear of dying after smoking marijuana (Khan, 2009). In addition, frequent cannabis use can lead to even more negative consequences, including disruptions with short-term memory, lowered coordination, delayed reaction time, increased heart rate and sexual problems (Drug Free World, 2006). Thus, it is very important for an individual to do more research before making the decision to consume cannabis in any form. | + | Although marijuana may have some positive short-term impacts on the user, it may also bring about a range of harmful effects as well. The extent to which these effects are detrimental to the user depends on the age and tolerance of the person consuming the drug. Studies show that cannabis use, especially early onset use (before age 15), is associated with increased delinquent behaviour, future employment and financial issues, mental health problems and substance abuse (Fergusson et al., 1996). This may be due to a sensitive period of cognitive development at this age, during which the impact of cannabinoid receptors in the brain hinder normal development (Pope et al., 2003). Moreover, cannabis may be more toxic to the developing brain than it is to mature brains, causing a decrease in white matter in developing brains (see Figure 5) (Pope et al., 2003). These toxic changes occur when cannabinoid receptors interfere with normal functioning of neurotransmitters in different regions of the brain (Ameri, 1999). While many scientists may consider cannabis as a potential pharmacotherapy, research shows it may actually bring more harmful effects to the user than beneficial ones (Lotan et al., 2014). Some research even indicates that frequent marijuana use can lead to acute psychosis and manic episodes, especially in individuals with pre-existing psychotic disorders (Khan, 2009). This may be an explanation as to why some individuals experience lowered anxiety while others face anxiety-inducing effects post cannabis use. It is not uncommon for those facing heightened anxiety to hallucinate, feel paranoid, feel irrational panic or have a sudden fear of dying after smoking marijuana (Khan, 2009). In addition, frequent cannabis use can lead to even more negative consequences, including disruptions with short-term memory, lowered coordination, delayed reaction time, increased heart rate and sexual problems (Drug Free World, 2006). Thus, it is very important for an individual to do more research before making the decision to consume cannabis in any form. |
| - | <box 65% round | >{{:brain.png|}} </box|Figure __: White matter in brains of marijuana users (right) and non-users (left). (Arnone, 2008)> | + | <box 65% round | >{{:brain.png|}} </box|Figure 5: White matter in brains of marijuana users (right) and non-users (left). (Arnone, 2008)> |
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| Ameri, Angela. "The Effects Of Cannabinoids On The Brain". Progress in Neurobiology 58.4 (1999): 315-348. Web. | Ameri, Angela. "The Effects Of Cannabinoids On The Brain". Progress in Neurobiology 58.4 (1999): 315-348. Web. | ||
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| + | Arnone, D., Barrick, T. R., Chengappa, S., Mackay, C. E., Clark, C. A., & Abou-Saleh, M. T. (2008). Corpus callosum damage in heavy marijuana use: preliminary evidence from diffusion tensor tractography and tract-based spatial statistics. Neuroimage, 41(3), 1067-1074. | ||
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| + | Bello, J. (2007). The Benefits of Marijuana: Physical, Psychological and Spiritual. Lifeservices Press. | ||
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| + | Block, R. I., O'leary, D. S., Ehrhardt, J. C., Augustinack, J. C., Ghoneim, M. M., Arndt, S., & Hall, J. A. (2000). Effects of frequent marijuana use on brain tissue volume and composition. Neuroreport, 11(3), 491-496. | ||
| Block, R. I., O'leary, D. S., Ehrhardt, J. C., Augustinack, J. C., Ghoneim, M. M., Arndt, S., & Hall, J. A. (2000). Effects of frequent marijuana use on brain tissue volume and composition. Neuroreport, 11(3), 491-496. | Block, R. I., O'leary, D. S., Ehrhardt, J. C., Augustinack, J. C., Ghoneim, M. M., Arndt, S., & Hall, J. A. (2000). Effects of frequent marijuana use on brain tissue volume and composition. Neuroreport, 11(3), 491-496. | ||
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| Brock, Tom. "CANNABINOID SIGNALING: THE ORIGINAL RETROGRADE SIGNALING PATHWAY". Caymanchem.com. N.p., 2008. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | Brock, Tom. "CANNABINOID SIGNALING: THE ORIGINAL RETROGRADE SIGNALING PATHWAY". Caymanchem.com. N.p., 2008. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | ||
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| + | Caulkins, J. P., Kilmer, B., & Kleiman, M. A. (2016). Marijuana Legalization: What Everyone Needs to Know?. Oxford University Press. | ||
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| + | Cohen, J. A., & Rudick, R. A. (Eds.). (2007). Multiple sclerosis therapeutics. CRC Press. | ||
| Deem, R. (2013). The Medical "Benefits" of Smoking Marijuana (Cannabis): a Review of the Current Scientific Literatureby Rich Deem. Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://www.godandscience.org/doctrine/medical_marijuana_review.html | Deem, R. (2013). The Medical "Benefits" of Smoking Marijuana (Cannabis): a Review of the Current Scientific Literatureby Rich Deem. Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://www.godandscience.org/doctrine/medical_marijuana_review.html | ||
| Degenhardt, Louisa, Alize J. Ferrari, Bianca Calabria, Wayne D. Hall, Rosana E. Norman, John Mcgrath, Abraham D. Flaxman, Rebecca E. Engell, Greg D. Freedman, Harvey A. Whiteford, and Theo Vos. "The Global Epidemiology and Contribution of Cannabis Use and Dependence to the Global Burden of Disease: Results from the GBD 2010 Study." PLoS ONE 8.10 (2013): n. pag. Web. | Degenhardt, Louisa, Alize J. Ferrari, Bianca Calabria, Wayne D. Hall, Rosana E. Norman, John Mcgrath, Abraham D. Flaxman, Rebecca E. Engell, Greg D. Freedman, Harvey A. Whiteford, and Theo Vos. "The Global Epidemiology and Contribution of Cannabis Use and Dependence to the Global Burden of Disease: Results from the GBD 2010 Study." PLoS ONE 8.10 (2013): n. pag. Web. | ||
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| + | Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., & Horwood, L. J. (1996). The short-term consequences of early onset cannabis use. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 24(4), 499-512. | ||
| Filbey, F. M., Aslan, S., Calhoun, V. D., Spence, J. S., Damaraju, E., Caprihan, A., & Segall, J. (2014). Long-term effects of marijuana use on the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(47), 16913-16918. | Filbey, F. M., Aslan, S., Calhoun, V. D., Spence, J. S., Damaraju, E., Caprihan, A., & Segall, J. (2014). Long-term effects of marijuana use on the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(47), 16913-16918. | ||
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| + | Foltin, R. W., Fischman, M. W., & Byrne, M. F. (1988). Effects of smoked marijuana on food intake and body weight of humans living in a residential laboratory. Appetite, 11(1), 1-14. | ||
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| + | Gupta, S. (2013). Why I changed my mind on weed. CNN. com, 9. | ||
| Hendershot, C. S., Magnan, R. E., & Bryan, A. D. (2010). Associations of marijuana use and sex-related marijuana expectancies with HIV/STD risk behavior in high-risk adolescents. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 24(3), 404. | Hendershot, C. S., Magnan, R. E., & Bryan, A. D. (2010). Associations of marijuana use and sex-related marijuana expectancies with HIV/STD risk behavior in high-risk adolescents. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 24(3), 404. | ||
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| + | Hoffmann, D. E., & Weber, E. (2010). Medical marijuana and the law. New England Journal of Medicine, 362(16), 1453-1457. | ||
| H. (2015, September 17). The Effects Of Weed On Your Health. Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://herb.co/2015/09/17/the-effects-of-weed-on-your-health/ | H. (2015, September 17). The Effects Of Weed On Your Health. Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://herb.co/2015/09/17/the-effects-of-weed-on-your-health/ | ||
| Iversen, L. "Cannabis And The Brain". Brain 126.6 (2003): 1252-1270. Web. | Iversen, L. "Cannabis And The Brain". Brain 126.6 (2003): 1252-1270. Web. | ||
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| + | Jones, K. A., Blagrove, M., & Parrott, A. C. (2009). Cannabis and Ecstasy/MDMA: empirical measures of creativity in recreational users. Journal of psychoactive drugs, 41(4), 323-329. | ||
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| + | Khan, M. A., & Akella, S. (2009). Cannabis-induced bipolar disorder with psychotic features: a case report. Psychiatry (1550-5952), 6(12). | ||
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| + | Lee, C. M., Neighbors, C., & Woods, B. A. (2007). Marijuana motives: Young adults' reasons for using marijuana. Addictive behaviors, 32(7), 1384-1394. | ||
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| + | Lotan, I., Treves, T. A., Roditi, Y., & Djaldetti, R. (2014). Cannabis (Medical Marijuana) Treatment for Motor and Non–Motor Symptoms of Parkinson Disease: An Open-Label Observational Study. Clinical neuropharmacology, 37(2), 41-44. | ||
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| + | Murnion, B. (2015). Medicinal cannabis. Australian prescriber, 38(6), 212. | ||
| Osborne, G. B., & Fogel, C. (2008). Understanding the motivations for recreational marijuana use among adult Canadians. Substance use & misuse, 43(3-4), 539-572. | Osborne, G. B., & Fogel, C. (2008). Understanding the motivations for recreational marijuana use among adult Canadians. Substance use & misuse, 43(3-4), 539-572. | ||
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| + | Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Hudson, J. I., Cohane, G., Huestis, M. A., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2003). Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association?. Drug and alcohol dependence, 69(3), 303-310. | ||
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| + | "Prevalence and correlates of marijuana use in Canada, 2012." Government of Canada, Statistics Canada. N.p., 27 Nov. 2015. Web. 02 Apr. 2017. | ||
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| + | Short- & Long-Term Effects of Marijuana - Negative Side Effects of Weed - Drug-Free World. (n.d.). Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/marijuana/short-and-long-term-effects.html | ||
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| + | Richard, O. N., & Paul, O. B. Medical Marijuana: Basic Scientific View. | ||
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| + | Rosenthal, E., & Newhart, S. (2002). Marijuana Gold: Trash to Stash. Ed Rosenthal. | ||
| "The Science Of Marijuana: How THC Affects The Brain". Headsup.scholastic.com. N.p., 2011. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | "The Science Of Marijuana: How THC Affects The Brain". Headsup.scholastic.com. N.p., 2011. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | ||
| "The Science Of The Endocannabinoid System: How THC Affects The Brain And The Body". Headsup.scholastic.com. N.p., 2011. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | "The Science Of The Endocannabinoid System: How THC Affects The Brain And The Body". Headsup.scholastic.com. N.p., 2011. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | ||
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| - | "Prevalence and correlates of marijuana use in Canada, 2012." Government of Canada, Statistics Canada. N.p., 27 Nov. 2015. Web. 02 Apr. 2017. | ||
| Vathi, Sonila. "Endocannabinoid System: Key Regulatory Enzymes And Physio-Pathological Implications". Flipper.diff.org. N.p., 2014. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | Vathi, Sonila. "Endocannabinoid System: Key Regulatory Enzymes And Physio-Pathological Implications". Flipper.diff.org. N.p., 2014. Web. 2 Apr. 2017. | ||
| - | Short- & Long-Term Effects of Marijuana - Negative Side Effects of Weed - Drug-Free World. (n.d.). Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/marijuana/short-and-long-term-effects.html | ||
