Differences
This shows you the differences between two versions of the page.
| Both sides previous revision Previous revision Next revision | Previous revision | ||
|
group_3_presentation_2_-_lysergic_acid_diethylamide_lsd [2017/11/03 22:47] rajendaa [Social, Economic, and Cultural Implications] |
group_3_presentation_2_-_lysergic_acid_diethylamide_lsd [2018/01/25 15:18] (current) |
||
|---|---|---|---|
| Line 14: | Line 14: | ||
| ====== History ====== | ====== History ====== | ||
| - | The history of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) begins in 1938 in a Sandoz (pharmaceutical research company) research laboratory in Basel, Switzerland (“History of LSD”, n.d.; Schroder, 2014). Albert Hofmann was a 32-year-old recent University of Zurich graduate interested in discovering the properties and applications of the fungus ergot, which grows on rye (Schroder, 2014). Under the leadership of professor Arthur Stoll, Hofmann explains that he isolated alkaloids from ergot, which is the base of lysergic acid, and combined it with amines in peptide linkage (as cited in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). Using this new procedure, various lysergic acid amides were developed (as cited in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). One among them was lysergic acid diethylamide, which was created by combined the ammonia derivative diethylamide with lysergic acid (Schroder, 2014). This was, “given the laboratory code name LSD-25 because it was the twenty-fifth compound of the lysergic acid amide series” (as quoted in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). | + | The history of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) begins in 1938 in a Sandoz (pharmaceutical research company) research laboratory in Basel, Switzerland (“History of LSD”, n.d.; Schroder, 2014). Albert Hofmann was a 32-year-old recent University of Zurich graduate interested in discovering the properties and applications of the fungus ergot, which grows on rye (Schroder, 2014). Under the leadership of professor Arthur Stoll, Hofmann explains that he isolated alkaloids from ergot, which is the base of lysergic acid, and combined it with amines in peptide linkage (as cited in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). Using this new procedure, various lysergic acid amides were developed (as cited in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). One among them was lysergic acid diethylamide, which was created by combined the ammonia derivative diethylamide with lysergic acid (Schroder, 2014). Hofmann writes that this was, “given the laboratory code name LSD-25 because it was the twenty-fifth compound of the lysergic acid amide series” (as quoted in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). |
| However, Hofmann’s hopes that LSD-25 could have clinical relevance in manipulating the human circulation and respiration systems were unfounded as the only effect it had on animals when tested was that it caused stimulation (Schroder, 2014). Nevertheless, five years after his initial synthesis, Hofmann felt compelled to resynthesize the compound. While he was nearing the completion of his synthesis, he began to feel unusual and was forced to retire home. Upon his return to the laboratory, Hofmann remarked, “At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated-like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination…perceived an uninterrupted steam of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors” (as quoted in Schroder, 2014, n.p.). Thus, this was the first instance of a human experiencing the effects of LSD, albeit accidently, as Hofmann surmised he must have ingested the drug unintentionally while working on it. Having gotten a taste for the effects of LSD, quite literally, Hofmann proceeded to intentionally consume 250 micrograms of LSD and bicycled home with his lab assistant. It was at this pivotal moment that he began to realize the potency of the drug he had created for he began to have fantastic psychological hallucinations accompanied by physical symptoms of confusion (Schroder, 2014). This day is now celebrated as ‘Bicycle Day’ by LSD users (“History of LSD”, n.d.). | However, Hofmann’s hopes that LSD-25 could have clinical relevance in manipulating the human circulation and respiration systems were unfounded as the only effect it had on animals when tested was that it caused stimulation (Schroder, 2014). Nevertheless, five years after his initial synthesis, Hofmann felt compelled to resynthesize the compound. While he was nearing the completion of his synthesis, he began to feel unusual and was forced to retire home. Upon his return to the laboratory, Hofmann remarked, “At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated-like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination…perceived an uninterrupted steam of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors” (as quoted in Schroder, 2014, n.p.). Thus, this was the first instance of a human experiencing the effects of LSD, albeit accidently, as Hofmann surmised he must have ingested the drug unintentionally while working on it. Having gotten a taste for the effects of LSD, quite literally, Hofmann proceeded to intentionally consume 250 micrograms of LSD and bicycled home with his lab assistant. It was at this pivotal moment that he began to realize the potency of the drug he had created for he began to have fantastic psychological hallucinations accompanied by physical symptoms of confusion (Schroder, 2014). This day is now celebrated as ‘Bicycle Day’ by LSD users (“History of LSD”, n.d.). | ||
| Line 21: | Line 21: | ||
| Finally, there is an interesting historical connection between LSD and Canada. Psychiatric research on the effects of LSD on the mind was an aspect of LSD research during the late 1900s (Dyck, 2005). Ewen Cameron of the Allen Memorial Institute conducted research bankrolled by the CIA in Montreal, Quebec. Apart from Cameron, two other Canadian researchers conducted several experiments on the uses of LSD. One was Humphry Osmond of Weyburn, Saskatchewan and the other was Abram Hoffer of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. They were both interested in investigating the effects LSD had on an individual in creating a psychotic condition used to study schizophrenia. However, due to the increasingly controversial image that LSD had in the public, the government criminalized the drug making their research unsuccessful (Dyck, 2005). | Finally, there is an interesting historical connection between LSD and Canada. Psychiatric research on the effects of LSD on the mind was an aspect of LSD research during the late 1900s (Dyck, 2005). Ewen Cameron of the Allen Memorial Institute conducted research bankrolled by the CIA in Montreal, Quebec. Apart from Cameron, two other Canadian researchers conducted several experiments on the uses of LSD. One was Humphry Osmond of Weyburn, Saskatchewan and the other was Abram Hoffer of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. They were both interested in investigating the effects LSD had on an individual in creating a psychotic condition used to study schizophrenia. However, due to the increasingly controversial image that LSD had in the public, the government criminalized the drug making their research unsuccessful (Dyck, 2005). | ||
| - | |||
| ====== Famous LSD Users ====== | ====== Famous LSD Users ====== | ||
| Line 114: | Line 113: | ||
| ====== Social, Economic, and Cultural Implications ====== | ====== Social, Economic, and Cultural Implications ====== | ||
| - | LSD Abuse | + | **LSD Abuse** |
| To understand the social, economic and cultural implications of LSD it is important to first establish the context of LSD abuse. LSD abuse is not similar to other drug abuse. This is because LSD is not physically addictive, but rather is psychologically addictive (Das et al., 2016). Because LSD is such a potent drug whose effects last for such a long time, individuals do not consume LSD each day. However, with prolonged use over many days individuals can develop a tolerance for the drug causing them to have to consume more of the drug to get the same ‘level’ of ‘high’. What is unique about LSD though is that even if tolerance and dependence does build, if the individual were to stop consuming the drug for a period of several days, the dependence would subside. This demonstrates how LSD is not physically addictive (Das et al., 2016). | To understand the social, economic and cultural implications of LSD it is important to first establish the context of LSD abuse. LSD abuse is not similar to other drug abuse. This is because LSD is not physically addictive, but rather is psychologically addictive (Das et al., 2016). Because LSD is such a potent drug whose effects last for such a long time, individuals do not consume LSD each day. However, with prolonged use over many days individuals can develop a tolerance for the drug causing them to have to consume more of the drug to get the same ‘level’ of ‘high’. What is unique about LSD though is that even if tolerance and dependence does build, if the individual were to stop consuming the drug for a period of several days, the dependence would subside. This demonstrates how LSD is not physically addictive (Das et al., 2016). | ||
| Line 120: | Line 119: | ||
| However, this is not to say there are no side effects of LSD abuse as certainly there are some serious consequences of long-term LSD abuse. One of these consequences is hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder (HPPD) (Hermle et al., 2012). HPPD is defined as a, “long-lasting condition characterized by spontaneous recurrence of visual disturbances reminiscent of acute hallucinogen intoxication” (Hermle et al., 2012). Two examples of HPPD caused by LSD abuse are outlined by Hermle et al. (2012) and Noushad et al. (2015). The former explains the case study of a 33-year-old woman who abused LSD since the age of 18 and now has developed HPPD (Hermle et al., 2012) and the latter explains the case study of a forty-eight-year old man who abused LSD since his twenties and now has HPPD for twenty-five years even after stopping LSD use (Noushad et al., 2015). According to Wu et al. (2008) 16% of hallucinogen users (excluding MDMA i.e. ecstasy users) experience, “at least one clinical feature of hallucinogen use disorder [HUD]” (Wu et al., 2008) and among ecstasy users in the previous year, LSD was also used by 12% of them. This illustrates the danger of LSD as a potential gateway drug to ‘harder’ drugs like ecstasy and developing HUD. In fact, according to the Substance Abuse and Health Services Administration (2015), 246,000 individuals abused hallucinogens in 2014 in America alone and experienced HUD. | However, this is not to say there are no side effects of LSD abuse as certainly there are some serious consequences of long-term LSD abuse. One of these consequences is hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder (HPPD) (Hermle et al., 2012). HPPD is defined as a, “long-lasting condition characterized by spontaneous recurrence of visual disturbances reminiscent of acute hallucinogen intoxication” (Hermle et al., 2012). Two examples of HPPD caused by LSD abuse are outlined by Hermle et al. (2012) and Noushad et al. (2015). The former explains the case study of a 33-year-old woman who abused LSD since the age of 18 and now has developed HPPD (Hermle et al., 2012) and the latter explains the case study of a forty-eight-year old man who abused LSD since his twenties and now has HPPD for twenty-five years even after stopping LSD use (Noushad et al., 2015). According to Wu et al. (2008) 16% of hallucinogen users (excluding MDMA i.e. ecstasy users) experience, “at least one clinical feature of hallucinogen use disorder [HUD]” (Wu et al., 2008) and among ecstasy users in the previous year, LSD was also used by 12% of them. This illustrates the danger of LSD as a potential gateway drug to ‘harder’ drugs like ecstasy and developing HUD. In fact, according to the Substance Abuse and Health Services Administration (2015), 246,000 individuals abused hallucinogens in 2014 in America alone and experienced HUD. | ||
| - | Social Implications of Drug Abuse | + | **Social Implications of Drug Abuse** |
| In light of the evidence, it is obvious that there will be social repercussions of LSD and other hallucinogen abuse. These social implications can be generalized to that of the social impact of drugs. Young adults are particularly affected by drug abuse and they face, “negative effects on health, psychosomatic symptoms, emotional distress, and interpersonal relationships…increased health and family problems” (Newcomb and Bentler, 1988). According to a study done by Saxe et al. (2001), drug abuse also has a socioeconomic slant to it. To be specific, the researchers found out that drug abuse is significantly more evident in low-income communities, but that drug abuse is spread out uniformly over communities of all income brackets. To address these problems, the researchers suggest that, “prevention, treatment, and research” are key priorities to focus on to help combat drug abuse in poorer communities and that an increase in law enforcement is not necessarily the most effective strategy (Saxe et al., 2001). | In light of the evidence, it is obvious that there will be social repercussions of LSD and other hallucinogen abuse. These social implications can be generalized to that of the social impact of drugs. Young adults are particularly affected by drug abuse and they face, “negative effects on health, psychosomatic symptoms, emotional distress, and interpersonal relationships…increased health and family problems” (Newcomb and Bentler, 1988). According to a study done by Saxe et al. (2001), drug abuse also has a socioeconomic slant to it. To be specific, the researchers found out that drug abuse is significantly more evident in low-income communities, but that drug abuse is spread out uniformly over communities of all income brackets. To address these problems, the researchers suggest that, “prevention, treatment, and research” are key priorities to focus on to help combat drug abuse in poorer communities and that an increase in law enforcement is not necessarily the most effective strategy (Saxe et al., 2001). | ||
| - | Economic Implications of Drug Abuse | + | **Economic Implications of Drug Abuse** |
| There are also economic implications to drug abuse. As mentioned earlier because LSD can be a gateway drug to more potent drugs, it is a useful exercise to examine the economic impacts of drug abuse as a whole. This can be done by estimating the economic costs of drug abuse on different parameters, “health, public safety, crime, productivity and governance” (International Narcotics Control Board [INCB], 2013). Regarding health, governments can save $10 for every $1 they invest into treatment and prevention programs for drug abusers. Regarding public safety, drug users are several times more likely to get into accidents while driving. Regarding crime, 55% of criminals report they were under the influence of drugs. Regarding productivity, America loses $120 billion USD as a result of lost productivity from people not working. Lastly, regarding governance, corruption is rampant in governments all over the world due to drug trafficking. All of these factors lead to monetary repercussions (INCB, 2013). | There are also economic implications to drug abuse. As mentioned earlier because LSD can be a gateway drug to more potent drugs, it is a useful exercise to examine the economic impacts of drug abuse as a whole. This can be done by estimating the economic costs of drug abuse on different parameters, “health, public safety, crime, productivity and governance” (International Narcotics Control Board [INCB], 2013). Regarding health, governments can save $10 for every $1 they invest into treatment and prevention programs for drug abusers. Regarding public safety, drug users are several times more likely to get into accidents while driving. Regarding crime, 55% of criminals report they were under the influence of drugs. Regarding productivity, America loses $120 billion USD as a result of lost productivity from people not working. Lastly, regarding governance, corruption is rampant in governments all over the world due to drug trafficking. All of these factors lead to monetary repercussions (INCB, 2013). | ||
| + | **Cultural Implications of LSD** | ||
| + | |||
| + | LSD had an enormous impact on culture in the USA. Apart from the examples touched upon earlier in the ‘History’ portion of this wiki page, Rothstein (2008) writes that in the 1960s and in the early 1970s LSD use was very common making LSD usage not so much ‘counter culture’ as it was mainstream. For instance, headshops were common in New York (Rothstein, 2008) before the drug was criminalized. Ramm (2017), in particular, explores a singular example of the cultural impact LSD had on America by considering the Brotherhood of Eternal Love. This was a group organized to combat the government’s attempts to stop the consumption of LSD and were central figures in the Human Be-In event organized in San Francisco 1967. Their ideas stemmed in part from the viewpoints advocated by the author Aldous Huxley- that of the consumption of psychedelics (Ramm, 2017). The Brotherhood of Eternal Love is just one of many examples of the cultural transformation LSD had on America. | ||
| ====== Research / Applications ====== | ====== Research / Applications ====== | ||
| Line 194: | Line 196: | ||
| Aghajanian, G. K., & Marek, G. J. (1999). Serotonin, via 5-HT2A receptors, increases EPSCs in layer V pyramidal cells of prefrontal cortex by an asynchronous mode of glutamate release. //Brain Research, 825(1–2)//, 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993 | Aghajanian, G. K., & Marek, G. J. (1999). Serotonin, via 5-HT2A receptors, increases EPSCs in layer V pyramidal cells of prefrontal cortex by an asynchronous mode of glutamate release. //Brain Research, 825(1–2)//, 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993 | ||
| + | |||
| + | Ayd, F. J., & Blackwell, B. (1970). Discoveries in biological psychiatry. | ||
| Blachford, S. L., & Krapp, K. (2010). //LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). Drugs and Controlled Substances: Information for Students//. Detroit, MI, USA: Gale. | Blachford, S. L., & Krapp, K. (2010). //LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). Drugs and Controlled Substances: Information for Students//. Detroit, MI, USA: Gale. | ||
| Line 206: | Line 210: | ||
| Dobkin de Rios M., & Janiger O. (2003). //LSD, Spirituality and the Creative Process.// Rochester, NY, USA: Park Street Press. | Dobkin de Rios M., & Janiger O. (2003). //LSD, Spirituality and the Creative Process.// Rochester, NY, USA: Park Street Press. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Dyck, E. (2005). Flashback: psychiatric experimentation with LSD in historical perspective. //The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry//, 50(7), 381-388. | ||
| Gasser, P., Holstein, D., Michel, Y., Doblin, R., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Passie, T., . . . Brenneisen, R. (2014). Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. //The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 202(7)//, 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000113 | Gasser, P., Holstein, D., Michel, Y., Doblin, R., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Passie, T., . . . Brenneisen, R. (2014). Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. //The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 202(7)//, 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000113 | ||
| Line 213: | Line 219: | ||
| Grob C. (2002). Conversation with Albert Hofmann. In Grob C (Ed.), //Hallucinogens: A Reader// (pp. 15–22). New York, NY, USA: Tarcher/Putnam. | Grob C. (2002). Conversation with Albert Hofmann. In Grob C (Ed.), //Hallucinogens: A Reader// (pp. 15–22). New York, NY, USA: Tarcher/Putnam. | ||
| - | Hermann, E. (2016). //What You Should Know About Quitting LSD//. Retrieved from https://www.recovery.org/topics/quitting-lsd/ | + | HISTORY.com. (n.d.). History of LSD. [online] Available at: http://www.history.com/topics/history-of-lsd [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. |
| + | |||
| + | Hermann, E. (2016). //What You Should Know About Quitting LSD//. Retrieved from https://www.recovery.org/topics/quitting-lsd/ | ||
| + | |||
| + | Hermle, L., Simon, M., Ruchsow, M., & Geppert, M. (2012). Hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder. //Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology//, 2(5), 199–205. http://doi.org/10.1177/2045125312451270 | ||
| + | |||
| + | International Narcotics Control Board (2013). Economic Consequences of Drug Abuse. International Narcotics Control Board, pp.1-4. | ||
| Kast, E. C., & Collins, V. J. (1964). Study of lysergic acid diethylamide as an alangestic agent. //Anesthesia and Analgesia, 43//, 285–291. Retrieved from https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=14169837 | Kast, E. C., & Collins, V. J. (1964). Study of lysergic acid diethylamide as an alangestic agent. //Anesthesia and Analgesia, 43//, 285–291. Retrieved from https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=14169837 | ||
| Line 236: | Line 248: | ||
| National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). (2009). //Hallucinogens: LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin, and PCP.// Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/hallucinogens09.pdf | National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). (2009). //Hallucinogens: LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin, and PCP.// Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/hallucinogens09.pdf | ||
| + | |||
| + | Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1988). Impact of adolescent drug use and social support on problems of young adults: A longitudinal study. //Journal of abnormal psychology//, 97(1), 64. | ||
| Nichols, D.E. (2016). Psychedelics. //Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2)//, 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478 | Nichols, D.E. (2016). Psychedelics. //Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2)//, 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478 | ||
| + | |||
| + | Noushad, F., Al Hillawi, Q., Siram, V., & Arif, M. (2015). 25 years of Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder-A diagnostic challenge. //British Journal of Medical Practitioners//, 8(1), 37-40. | ||
| Passie, T., Halpern, J. H., Stichtenoth, D. O., Emrich, H. M., & Hintzen, A. (2008). The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. //CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 14(4)//, 295–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00059.x | Passie, T., Halpern, J. H., Stichtenoth, D. O., Emrich, H. M., & Hintzen, A. (2008). The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. //CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 14(4)//, 295–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00059.x | ||
| Line 244: | Line 260: | ||
| PubChem. (2017). //Lysergide//. Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5761 | PubChem. (2017). //Lysergide//. Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5761 | ||
| + | |||
| + | Ramm, B. (2017). The LSD cult that transformed America. [online] Bbc.com. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20170112-the-lsd-cult-that-terrified-america [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Rothstein, E. (2008). How LSD Altered Minds and a Culture Along With It. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/arts/05conn.html [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
| Ruck, C. A., Bigwood, J., Staples, D., Ott, J., & Wasson, R. G. (1979). Entheogens. //Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 11(1–2)//, 145–146. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/522165 | Ruck, C. A., Bigwood, J., Staples, D., Ott, J., & Wasson, R. G. (1979). Entheogens. //Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 11(1–2)//, 145–146. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/522165 | ||
| + | |||
| + | Samhsa.gov. (2015). Substance Use Disorders | SAMHSA - Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. [online] Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/disorders/substance-use [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
| Savage, C., & McCabe, O.L. (1973). Residential psychedelic (LSD) therapy for the narcotic addict: a controlled study. //Arch Gen Psychiatry, 28//, 808-814. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1973.01750360040005 | Savage, C., & McCabe, O.L. (1973). Residential psychedelic (LSD) therapy for the narcotic addict: a controlled study. //Arch Gen Psychiatry, 28//, 808-814. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1973.01750360040005 | ||
| + | |||
| + | Saxe, L., Kadushin, C., Beveridge, A., Livert, D., Tighe, E., Rindskopf, D., … Brodsky, A. (2001). The Visibility of Illicit Drugs: Implications for Community-Based Drug Control Strategies. //American Journal of Public Health//, 91(12), 1987–1994. | ||
| Schiff, P. L. (2006). Ergot and its alkaloids. //American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(5)//, 98. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637017/ | Schiff, P. L. (2006). Ergot and its alkaloids. //American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(5)//, 98. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637017/ | ||
| + | |||
| + | Shroder, T. (2014). The Accidental, Psychedelic Discovery of LSD. [online] The Atlantic. Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/09/the-accidental-discovery-of-lsd/379564/ [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
| Smith, P. (2015). //7 People Who Say They Owe Their Huge Success to Psychedelics//. Retrieved from https://www.alternet.org/drugs/seven-high-achievers-credit-psychedelics-their-success | Smith, P. (2015). //7 People Who Say They Owe Their Huge Success to Psychedelics//. Retrieved from https://www.alternet.org/drugs/seven-high-achievers-credit-psychedelics-their-success | ||
| + | |||
| + | Wu, L.-T., Ringwalt, C. L., Mannelli, P., & Patkar, A. A. (2008). Hallucinogen Use Disorders Among Adult Users of MDMA and Other Hallucinogens. //The American Journal on Addictions / American Academy of Psychiatrists in Alcoholism and Addictions//, 17(5), 354–363. http://doi.org/10.1080/10550490802269064 | ||
