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| ====== Summary Videos ====== | ====== Summary Videos ====== | ||
| - | Your Brain on LSD and Acid: {{youtube>wG5JyorwYPo?medium}} | + | Your brain on LSD: {{youtube>wG5JyorwYPo?medium}} |
| ====== History ====== | ====== History ====== | ||
| + | The history of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) begins in 1938 in a Sandoz (pharmaceutical research company) research laboratory in Basel, Switzerland (“History of LSD”, n.d.; Schroder, 2014). Albert Hofmann was a 32-year-old recent University of Zurich graduate interested in discovering the properties and applications of the fungus ergot, which grows on rye (Schroder, 2014). Under the leadership of professor Arthur Stoll, Hofmann explains that he isolated alkaloids from ergot, which is the base of lysergic acid, and combined it with amines in peptide linkage (as cited in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). Using this new procedure, various lysergic acid amides were developed (as cited in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). One among them was lysergic acid diethylamide, which was created by combined the ammonia derivative diethylamide with lysergic acid (Schroder, 2014). Hofmann writes that this was, “given the laboratory code name LSD-25 because it was the twenty-fifth compound of the lysergic acid amide series” (as quoted in Ayd and Blackwell, 1971, n.p.). | ||
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| + | However, Hofmann’s hopes that LSD-25 could have clinical relevance in manipulating the human circulation and respiration systems were unfounded as the only effect it had on animals when tested was that it caused stimulation (Schroder, 2014). Nevertheless, five years after his initial synthesis, Hofmann felt compelled to resynthesize the compound. While he was nearing the completion of his synthesis, he began to feel unusual and was forced to retire home. Upon his return to the laboratory, Hofmann remarked, “At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated-like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination…perceived an uninterrupted steam of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors” (as quoted in Schroder, 2014, n.p.). Thus, this was the first instance of a human experiencing the effects of LSD, albeit accidently, as Hofmann surmised he must have ingested the drug unintentionally while working on it. Having gotten a taste for the effects of LSD, quite literally, Hofmann proceeded to intentionally consume 250 micrograms of LSD and bicycled home with his lab assistant. It was at this pivotal moment that he began to realize the potency of the drug he had created for he began to have fantastic psychological hallucinations accompanied by physical symptoms of confusion (Schroder, 2014). This day is now celebrated as ‘Bicycle Day’ by LSD users (“History of LSD”, n.d.). | ||
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| + | After the discovery of LSD and the subsequent popularization of the drug, it became known for its association with various different organizations, people, and cultural movements (“History of LSD”, n.d.). Project MK-Ultra was one such example. It was purported to be a mind-control experimental project created by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States of America from 1950 to 1960. The CIA used LSD on unwitting participants in an attempt to test the drug’s efficacy as a psychological weapon of war during the Cold War it was waging against the Soviet Union. There were also several key individuals apart from Hofmann who are associated with the drug. Ken Kesey, the author of One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, promoted the recreational use of LSD after having used it as a participant of Project MK-Ultra. Kesey, along with several friends, hosted ‘Acid Parties’ in San Francisco where partygoers would ingest LSD and experience its effects in a group setting accompanied with music. Similarly, Harvard psychology professors Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert both experimented with LSD and went on to become promoters of the drug too. Finally, LSD became an important icon of the counterculture that was developing during the 1960s (“History of LSD”, n.d.). | ||
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| + | Finally, there is an interesting historical connection between LSD and Canada. Psychiatric research on the effects of LSD on the mind was an aspect of LSD research during the late 1900s (Dyck, 2005). Ewen Cameron of the Allen Memorial Institute conducted research bankrolled by the CIA in Montreal, Quebec. Apart from Cameron, two other Canadian researchers conducted several experiments on the uses of LSD. One was Humphry Osmond of Weyburn, Saskatchewan and the other was Abram Hoffer of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. They were both interested in investigating the effects LSD had on an individual in creating a psychotic condition used to study schizophrenia. However, due to the increasingly controversial image that LSD had in the public, the government criminalized the drug making their research unsuccessful (Dyck, 2005). | ||
| ====== Famous LSD Users ====== | ====== Famous LSD Users ====== | ||
| * **Bill Gates (Co-founder of Microsoft):** In a 1994 Playboy interview he mentioned his experiences with LSD in from mid-20’s. He described them as mind-boggling experiences that helped him understand who he really was (Smith, 2015). | * **Bill Gates (Co-founder of Microsoft):** In a 1994 Playboy interview he mentioned his experiences with LSD in from mid-20’s. He described them as mind-boggling experiences that helped him understand who he really was (Smith, 2015). | ||
| - | * **Steve Jobs (Co-Founder of Apple):** Stated that his LSD usage in late teens was one of the 2 or 3 most important things he ever did in his life. He credits his outside-the-box perspective to LSD. He claims it helped him think of the world in a different way (Smith, 2015). | + | * **Steve Jobs (Co-founder of Apple):** Stated that his LSD usage in late teens was one of the 2 or 3 most important things he ever did in his life. He credits his outside-the-box perspective to LSD. He claims it helped him think of the world in a different way (Smith, 2015). |
| * **The Beatles (Band):** In a 2004 interview Paul McCartney stated that their songs "Day Tripper" and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" are about LSD and that the band wrote several of their songs while on LSD or soon after taking LSD including multiple number one hits (Smith, 2015). | * **The Beatles (Band):** In a 2004 interview Paul McCartney stated that their songs "Day Tripper" and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" are about LSD and that the band wrote several of their songs while on LSD or soon after taking LSD including multiple number one hits (Smith, 2015). | ||
| - | * **Francis Crick (Co-Discoverer of the Structure of the DNA Molecule):** In a 2004 interview Francis Crick claimed himself as well as many researchers at Cambridge would take LSD in small amounts to aid in their thinking. Crick also stated he would be unsure if the discovery of the structure of the DNA would have happened if he did not use LSD (Smith, 2015). | + | * **Francis Crick (Co-discoverer of the structure of the DNA molecule):** In a 2004 interview Francis Crick claimed that he and many other researchers at Cambridge would take LSD in small amounts to aid in their thinking. Crick also stated he would be unsure if the discovery of the structure of the DNA would have happened if he did not use LSD (Smith, 2015). |
| - | * **Katy Mullis (Refined the Polymerase Chain Reaction Technique (PCR)):** A year after winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 for his biochemical breakthrough in refining the PCR he admitted to binging LSD in the 60’s and 70’s. He went to proclaim that LSD was far more important to his accomplishments than any courses he ever took. He went as far as to claim that his entire legacy probably depended LSD (Smith, 2015). | + | * **Katy Mullis (Refined the polymerase chain reaction technique (PCR)):** A year after winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 for his biochemical breakthrough in refining the PCR he admitted to binging LSD in the 60’s and 70’s. He went to proclaim that LSD was far more important to his accomplishments than any courses he ever took. He went as far as to claim that his entire legacy probably depended LSD (Smith, 2015). |
| * **Doc Ellis (Former MLB Pitcher):** Former Major League pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates, once took LCD forgetting he was the planned starting pitcher against the San Diego Padres. He ended up throwing a no-hitter during the game while still under the effects of LCD. He claimed to have not seen any of the batters and was simply trying his best to throw in right direction on the June 12, 1970 night (Smith, 2015). | * **Doc Ellis (Former MLB Pitcher):** Former Major League pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates, once took LCD forgetting he was the planned starting pitcher against the San Diego Padres. He ended up throwing a no-hitter during the game while still under the effects of LCD. He claimed to have not seen any of the batters and was simply trying his best to throw in right direction on the June 12, 1970 night (Smith, 2015). | ||
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| **Figure 3: Binding of LSD vs. Serotonin to 5-HT receptors and the potential post cascade.** | **Figure 3: Binding of LSD vs. Serotonin to 5-HT receptors and the potential post cascade.** | ||
| - | ====== Effects on Brain ====== | + | ====== Effects on the Brain ====== |
| Brain networks dealing with vision, attention, movement, and hearing become far more connected; this creates what looks like a more connected and unified brain in an individual (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). Other networks in the brain are broken down or disintegrated, leading the activity to become more entropic, meaning that more of a state of disorder is created. This comes about due to these networks becoming separated (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). A scan of a user who took LSD showed that there was a loss of connections between part of the brain called the parahippocampus and another region called the retrosplenial cortex (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). The retrosplenial complex is on the posterior side of the brain and involves spatial navigation of the body. On the other hand, the parahippocampal region of the brain involves memory retrieval and encoding and is the area that surrounds the hippocampus. An individual will experience a feeling of “ego dissolution”, which is a feeling that describes an individual who feels less of being a singular entity and has now become one that is blended with the environment or others around them (Cormier, 2016). In other words, this means that an individual's self-identity is becoming lost. Lastly, lysergic acid diethylamide is not a physically addictive drug, but the drug may become psychologically addicting to the individual. The user may enjoy the trips that they may have and thus become addicted to feeling and experiencing these hallucinations (Das et al., 2016). | Brain networks dealing with vision, attention, movement, and hearing become far more connected; this creates what looks like a more connected and unified brain in an individual (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). Other networks in the brain are broken down or disintegrated, leading the activity to become more entropic, meaning that more of a state of disorder is created. This comes about due to these networks becoming separated (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). A scan of a user who took LSD showed that there was a loss of connections between part of the brain called the parahippocampus and another region called the retrosplenial cortex (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). The retrosplenial complex is on the posterior side of the brain and involves spatial navigation of the body. On the other hand, the parahippocampal region of the brain involves memory retrieval and encoding and is the area that surrounds the hippocampus. An individual will experience a feeling of “ego dissolution”, which is a feeling that describes an individual who feels less of being a singular entity and has now become one that is blended with the environment or others around them (Cormier, 2016). In other words, this means that an individual's self-identity is becoming lost. Lastly, lysergic acid diethylamide is not a physically addictive drug, but the drug may become psychologically addicting to the individual. The user may enjoy the trips that they may have and thus become addicted to feeling and experiencing these hallucinations (Das et al., 2016). | ||
| - | ====== Short/Long Term Effects ====== | + | ====== Short and Long Term Effects ====== |
| A dosage of 1–3 µg/kg body weight is enough to produce moderate, behavioral effects (Das, Barnwal, Ramasamy, Sen, & Mondal, 2016). LSD’s effects can be observed within 30-60 minutes of ingesting and can peak over 1-6 hours and dissipates in 8-12 hours (NIDA, 2016). Acute toxicity can upset the gastrointestinal system and cause chills while also stimulating the sympathetic nervous system resulting in hypothermia, palpitation, hypertension, hyperglycemia, tachycardia, and panic (NIDA, 2016; Das et al., 2016). They have dramatic changes in their feelings and sensations such as rapidly changing emotions (NIDA, 2009). LSD can also affect the motor system leading to increased activity of monosynaptic reflexes which result in muscle incoordination, which is considered a symptom of religious ecstasy where the worshipper (user) is displaying the love of God (Aghajanian & Marek, 1999; Das et al., 2016). | A dosage of 1–3 µg/kg body weight is enough to produce moderate, behavioral effects (Das, Barnwal, Ramasamy, Sen, & Mondal, 2016). LSD’s effects can be observed within 30-60 minutes of ingesting and can peak over 1-6 hours and dissipates in 8-12 hours (NIDA, 2016). Acute toxicity can upset the gastrointestinal system and cause chills while also stimulating the sympathetic nervous system resulting in hypothermia, palpitation, hypertension, hyperglycemia, tachycardia, and panic (NIDA, 2016; Das et al., 2016). They have dramatic changes in their feelings and sensations such as rapidly changing emotions (NIDA, 2009). LSD can also affect the motor system leading to increased activity of monosynaptic reflexes which result in muscle incoordination, which is considered a symptom of religious ecstasy where the worshipper (user) is displaying the love of God (Aghajanian & Marek, 1999; Das et al., 2016). | ||
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| - | ====== Social Implications ====== | + | ====== Social, Economic, and Cultural Implications ====== |
| + | **LSD Abuse** | ||
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| + | To understand the social, economic and cultural implications of LSD it is important to first establish the context of LSD abuse. LSD abuse is not similar to other drug abuse. This is because LSD is not physically addictive, but rather is psychologically addictive (Das et al., 2016). Because LSD is such a potent drug whose effects last for such a long time, individuals do not consume LSD each day. However, with prolonged use over many days individuals can develop a tolerance for the drug causing them to have to consume more of the drug to get the same ‘level’ of ‘high’. What is unique about LSD though is that even if tolerance and dependence does build, if the individual were to stop consuming the drug for a period of several days, the dependence would subside. This demonstrates how LSD is not physically addictive (Das et al., 2016). | ||
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| + | However, this is not to say there are no side effects of LSD abuse as certainly there are some serious consequences of long-term LSD abuse. One of these consequences is hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder (HPPD) (Hermle et al., 2012). HPPD is defined as a, “long-lasting condition characterized by spontaneous recurrence of visual disturbances reminiscent of acute hallucinogen intoxication” (Hermle et al., 2012). Two examples of HPPD caused by LSD abuse are outlined by Hermle et al. (2012) and Noushad et al. (2015). The former explains the case study of a 33-year-old woman who abused LSD since the age of 18 and now has developed HPPD (Hermle et al., 2012) and the latter explains the case study of a forty-eight-year old man who abused LSD since his twenties and now has HPPD for twenty-five years even after stopping LSD use (Noushad et al., 2015). According to Wu et al. (2008) 16% of hallucinogen users (excluding MDMA i.e. ecstasy users) experience, “at least one clinical feature of hallucinogen use disorder [HUD]” (Wu et al., 2008) and among ecstasy users in the previous year, LSD was also used by 12% of them. This illustrates the danger of LSD as a potential gateway drug to ‘harder’ drugs like ecstasy and developing HUD. In fact, according to the Substance Abuse and Health Services Administration (2015), 246,000 individuals abused hallucinogens in 2014 in America alone and experienced HUD. | ||
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| + | **Social Implications of Drug Abuse** | ||
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| + | In light of the evidence, it is obvious that there will be social repercussions of LSD and other hallucinogen abuse. These social implications can be generalized to that of the social impact of drugs. Young adults are particularly affected by drug abuse and they face, “negative effects on health, psychosomatic symptoms, emotional distress, and interpersonal relationships…increased health and family problems” (Newcomb and Bentler, 1988). According to a study done by Saxe et al. (2001), drug abuse also has a socioeconomic slant to it. To be specific, the researchers found out that drug abuse is significantly more evident in low-income communities, but that drug abuse is spread out uniformly over communities of all income brackets. To address these problems, the researchers suggest that, “prevention, treatment, and research” are key priorities to focus on to help combat drug abuse in poorer communities and that an increase in law enforcement is not necessarily the most effective strategy (Saxe et al., 2001). | ||
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| + | **Economic Implications of Drug Abuse** | ||
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| + | There are also economic implications to drug abuse. As mentioned earlier because LSD can be a gateway drug to more potent drugs, it is a useful exercise to examine the economic impacts of drug abuse as a whole. This can be done by estimating the economic costs of drug abuse on different parameters, “health, public safety, crime, productivity and governance” (International Narcotics Control Board [INCB], 2013). Regarding health, governments can save $10 for every $1 they invest into treatment and prevention programs for drug abusers. Regarding public safety, drug users are several times more likely to get into accidents while driving. Regarding crime, 55% of criminals report they were under the influence of drugs. Regarding productivity, America loses $120 billion USD as a result of lost productivity from people not working. Lastly, regarding governance, corruption is rampant in governments all over the world due to drug trafficking. All of these factors lead to monetary repercussions (INCB, 2013). | ||
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| + | **Cultural Implications of LSD** | ||
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| + | LSD had an enormous impact on culture in the USA. Apart from the examples touched upon earlier in the ‘History’ portion of this wiki page, Rothstein (2008) writes that in the 1960s and in the early 1970s LSD use was very common making LSD usage not so much ‘counter culture’ as it was mainstream. For instance, headshops were common in New York (Rothstein, 2008) before the drug was criminalized. Ramm (2017), in particular, explores a singular example of the cultural impact LSD had on America by considering the Brotherhood of Eternal Love. This was a group organized to combat the government’s attempts to stop the consumption of LSD and were central figures in the Human Be-In event organized in San Francisco 1967. Their ideas stemmed in part from the viewpoints advocated by the author Aldous Huxley- that of the consumption of psychedelics (Ramm, 2017). The Brotherhood of Eternal Love is just one of many examples of the cultural transformation LSD had on America. | ||
| ====== Research / Applications ====== | ====== Research / Applications ====== | ||
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| Aghajanian, G. K., & Marek, G. J. (1999). Serotonin, via 5-HT2A receptors, increases EPSCs in layer V pyramidal cells of prefrontal cortex by an asynchronous mode of glutamate release. //Brain Research, 825(1–2)//, 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993 | Aghajanian, G. K., & Marek, G. J. (1999). Serotonin, via 5-HT2A receptors, increases EPSCs in layer V pyramidal cells of prefrontal cortex by an asynchronous mode of glutamate release. //Brain Research, 825(1–2)//, 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993 | ||
| - | **Blachford, S. L., & Krapp, K. (2010). LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). Drugs and Controlled Substances: Information for Students. Detroit: Gale. Retrieved from http://sproxy.glenbrook225.org/login?url=http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CV2645000028/SCIC?u=gotitans&xid=8a0a151 - Incorrect Format** | + | Ayd, F. J., & Blackwell, B. (1970). Discoveries in biological psychiatry. |
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| + | Blachford, S. L., & Krapp, K. (2010). //LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). Drugs and Controlled Substances: Information for Students//. Detroit, MI, USA: Gale. | ||
| Blewett D., and Chwelos N. (1959). //Handbook for the therapeutic use of lysergic acid diethylamide 25 individual and group procedures.// Retrieved from https://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/guides/handbook_lsd25.shtml | Blewett D., and Chwelos N. (1959). //Handbook for the therapeutic use of lysergic acid diethylamide 25 individual and group procedures.// Retrieved from https://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/guides/handbook_lsd25.shtml | ||
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| Dobkin de Rios M., & Janiger O. (2003). //LSD, Spirituality and the Creative Process.// Rochester, NY, USA: Park Street Press. | Dobkin de Rios M., & Janiger O. (2003). //LSD, Spirituality and the Creative Process.// Rochester, NY, USA: Park Street Press. | ||
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| + | Dyck, E. (2005). Flashback: psychiatric experimentation with LSD in historical perspective. //The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry//, 50(7), 381-388. | ||
| Gasser, P., Holstein, D., Michel, Y., Doblin, R., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Passie, T., . . . Brenneisen, R. (2014). Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. //The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 202(7)//, 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000113 | Gasser, P., Holstein, D., Michel, Y., Doblin, R., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Passie, T., . . . Brenneisen, R. (2014). Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. //The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 202(7)//, 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000113 | ||
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| Grinspoon L., & Bakalar J. (1997). //Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered//. New York, NY, USA: Lindesmith Center. | Grinspoon L., & Bakalar J. (1997). //Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered//. New York, NY, USA: Lindesmith Center. | ||
| - | **Grob C. (2002). Conversation with Albert Hofmann. In: Grob C., editor. (ed.), Hallucinogens: A Reader. New York: Tarcher/Putnam, pp. 15–22. - Incorrect Form** | + | Grob C. (2002). Conversation with Albert Hofmann. In Grob C (Ed.), //Hallucinogens: A Reader// (pp. 15–22). New York, NY, USA: Tarcher/Putnam. |
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| + | HISTORY.com. (n.d.). History of LSD. [online] Available at: http://www.history.com/topics/history-of-lsd [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
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| + | Hermann, E. (2016). //What You Should Know About Quitting LSD//. Retrieved from https://www.recovery.org/topics/quitting-lsd/ | ||
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| + | Hermle, L., Simon, M., Ruchsow, M., & Geppert, M. (2012). Hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder. //Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology//, 2(5), 199–205. http://doi.org/10.1177/2045125312451270 | ||
| - | Hermann, E. (2016). //What You Should Know About Quitting LSD//. Retrieved from https://www.recovery.org/topics/quitting-lsd/ | + | International Narcotics Control Board (2013). Economic Consequences of Drug Abuse. International Narcotics Control Board, pp.1-4. |
| Kast, E. C., & Collins, V. J. (1964). Study of lysergic acid diethylamide as an alangestic agent. //Anesthesia and Analgesia, 43//, 285–291. Retrieved from https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=14169837 | Kast, E. C., & Collins, V. J. (1964). Study of lysergic acid diethylamide as an alangestic agent. //Anesthesia and Analgesia, 43//, 285–291. Retrieved from https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=14169837 | ||
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| National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). (2009). //Hallucinogens: LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin, and PCP.// Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/hallucinogens09.pdf | National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). (2009). //Hallucinogens: LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin, and PCP.// Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/hallucinogens09.pdf | ||
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| + | Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1988). Impact of adolescent drug use and social support on problems of young adults: A longitudinal study. //Journal of abnormal psychology//, 97(1), 64. | ||
| Nichols, D.E. (2016). Psychedelics. //Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2)//, 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478 | Nichols, D.E. (2016). Psychedelics. //Pharmacological Reviews, 68(2)//, 264-355. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011478 | ||
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| + | Noushad, F., Al Hillawi, Q., Siram, V., & Arif, M. (2015). 25 years of Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder-A diagnostic challenge. //British Journal of Medical Practitioners//, 8(1), 37-40. | ||
| Passie, T., Halpern, J. H., Stichtenoth, D. O., Emrich, H. M., & Hintzen, A. (2008). The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. //CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 14(4)//, 295–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00059.x | Passie, T., Halpern, J. H., Stichtenoth, D. O., Emrich, H. M., & Hintzen, A. (2008). The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. //CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 14(4)//, 295–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00059.x | ||
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| PubChem. (2017). //Lysergide//. Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5761 | PubChem. (2017). //Lysergide//. Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5761 | ||
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| + | Ramm, B. (2017). The LSD cult that transformed America. [online] Bbc.com. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20170112-the-lsd-cult-that-terrified-america [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
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| + | Rothstein, E. (2008). How LSD Altered Minds and a Culture Along With It. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/arts/05conn.html [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
| Ruck, C. A., Bigwood, J., Staples, D., Ott, J., & Wasson, R. G. (1979). Entheogens. //Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 11(1–2)//, 145–146. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/522165 | Ruck, C. A., Bigwood, J., Staples, D., Ott, J., & Wasson, R. G. (1979). Entheogens. //Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 11(1–2)//, 145–146. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/522165 | ||
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| + | Samhsa.gov. (2015). Substance Use Disorders | SAMHSA - Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. [online] Available at: https://www.samhsa.gov/disorders/substance-use [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
| Savage, C., & McCabe, O.L. (1973). Residential psychedelic (LSD) therapy for the narcotic addict: a controlled study. //Arch Gen Psychiatry, 28//, 808-814. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1973.01750360040005 | Savage, C., & McCabe, O.L. (1973). Residential psychedelic (LSD) therapy for the narcotic addict: a controlled study. //Arch Gen Psychiatry, 28//, 808-814. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1973.01750360040005 | ||
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| + | Saxe, L., Kadushin, C., Beveridge, A., Livert, D., Tighe, E., Rindskopf, D., … Brodsky, A. (2001). The Visibility of Illicit Drugs: Implications for Community-Based Drug Control Strategies. //American Journal of Public Health//, 91(12), 1987–1994. | ||
| Schiff, P. L. (2006). Ergot and its alkaloids. //American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(5)//, 98. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637017/ | Schiff, P. L. (2006). Ergot and its alkaloids. //American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(5)//, 98. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637017/ | ||
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| + | Shroder, T. (2014). The Accidental, Psychedelic Discovery of LSD. [online] The Atlantic. Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/09/the-accidental-discovery-of-lsd/379564/ [Accessed 4 Nov. 2017]. | ||
| Smith, P. (2015). //7 People Who Say They Owe Their Huge Success to Psychedelics//. Retrieved from https://www.alternet.org/drugs/seven-high-achievers-credit-psychedelics-their-success | Smith, P. (2015). //7 People Who Say They Owe Their Huge Success to Psychedelics//. Retrieved from https://www.alternet.org/drugs/seven-high-achievers-credit-psychedelics-their-success | ||
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| + | Wu, L.-T., Ringwalt, C. L., Mannelli, P., & Patkar, A. A. (2008). Hallucinogen Use Disorders Among Adult Users of MDMA and Other Hallucinogens. //The American Journal on Addictions / American Academy of Psychiatrists in Alcoholism and Addictions//, 17(5), 354–363. http://doi.org/10.1080/10550490802269064 | ||
