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| ====Methylphenidate (e.g. Ritalin)==== | ====Methylphenidate (e.g. Ritalin)==== | ||
| - | <box 35% round right | > {{:ritalin.jpg|}} </box| Figure 12: Methylphenidates like Ritalin are most commonly used for the treatment of ADHD.> Methylphenidate (MPH) is the most commonly prescribed drug for the treatment of ADHD (Volkow et al, 2002). It is a stimulant drug that blocks dopamine and norepinephrine transporters in the brain, thereby increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain (Volkow et al, 2002). | + | <box 40% round right | > {{:ritalin.jpg|}} </box| Figure 12: Methylphenidates like Ritalin are most commonly used for the treatment of ADHD.> Methylphenidate (MPH) is the most commonly prescribed drug for the treatment of ADHD (Volkow et al, 2002). It is a stimulant drug that blocks dopamine and norepinephrine transporters in the brain, thereby increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain (Volkow et al, 2002). |
| - | Though the exact mechanism of action is widely unknown, it may help increase attention and decrease impulsiveness and hyperactivity (FDA, 2013). Methylphenidate potentiates, or strengthens, dopaminergic signalling by increasing the effect of dopamine cell firing on the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). The Dopamine Transfer Deficit (DTD) theory suggests that there are specific alterations in the magnitude and timing of this anticipatory dopamine cell firing in children with ADHD (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). This anticipatory dopaminergic cell firing is important for behavioural reinforcement in learning (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). The DTD theory predicts that for children with ADHD, there is a dopamine transfer dysfunction. Specifically, the phasic dopamine cell response to the cue that predicts reinforcement is reduced in amplitude to the point of being ineffective (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). Consistent with the DTD theory, it is beneficial to block the dopamine transporter, DAT, so there is less dopamine reuptake and more dopamine present in the synaptic cleft (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). | + | Though the exact mechanism of action is widely unknown, it may help increase attention and decrease impulsiveness and hyperactivity (FDA, 2013). Methylphenidate potentiates, or strengthens, dopaminergic signalling by increasing the effect of dopamine cell firing on the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). |
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| + | The Dopamine Transfer Deficit (DTD) theory suggests that there are specific alterations in the magnitude and timing of this anticipatory dopamine cell firing in children with ADHD (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). This anticipatory dopaminergic cell firing is important for behavioural reinforcement in learning (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). The DTD theory predicts that for children with ADHD, there is a dopamine transfer dysfunction. Specifically, the phasic dopamine cell response to the cue that predicts reinforcement is reduced in amplitude to the point of being ineffective (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). | ||
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| + | Consistent with the DTD theory, it is beneficial to block the dopamine transporter, DAT, so there is less dopamine reuptake and more dopamine present in the synaptic cleft (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). | ||
| This type of drug treatment should not be used for children under six years of age because it has not yet been studied for this age group (FDA, 2013). Some side effects of Ritalin include, headache, decreased appetite, stomach ache, nervousness, trouble sleeping and nausea. | This type of drug treatment should not be used for children under six years of age because it has not yet been studied for this age group (FDA, 2013). Some side effects of Ritalin include, headache, decreased appetite, stomach ache, nervousness, trouble sleeping and nausea. | ||
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| It was noted that dopamine levels were elevated in the nucleus accumbens as well (Bymaster et al., 2002). The nucleus accumbens is involved in the reward circuit, thereby increasing the susceptibility of abuse of psychostimulants; stimulants are considered a Schedule II drug meaning that there is a high potential for abuse (Allen et al., 2005). | It was noted that dopamine levels were elevated in the nucleus accumbens as well (Bymaster et al., 2002). The nucleus accumbens is involved in the reward circuit, thereby increasing the susceptibility of abuse of psychostimulants; stimulants are considered a Schedule II drug meaning that there is a high potential for abuse (Allen et al., 2005). | ||
| - | The downside is that some children reported to feel embarrassed at school when taking the medication and would often skip it (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). Another pitfall is that individuals with ADHD are often forgetful and may miss a dosage of their medication and thus impairs the efficacy of the drug (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). | + | The downside is that some children reported to feel embarrassed at school when taking the medication and would often skip it (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). |
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| + | Another pitfall is that individuals with ADHD are often forgetful and may miss a dosage of their medication and thus impairs the efficacy of the drug (Tripp & Wickens, 2008). | ||
| In a specific study, the only side effects experienced were a dry mouth (Spencer et al., 2007). | In a specific study, the only side effects experienced were a dry mouth (Spencer et al., 2007). | ||
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| ====Non stimulants==== | ====Non stimulants==== | ||
| Non stimulants are also prescribed to treat ADHD. An example is Atomoxetine, which has high selectivity for noradrenergic reuptake transporters and low selectivity for dopaminergic transporters in the nucleus accumbens, thereby increasing norepinephrine specifically in the prefrontal cortex (Allen et al., 2005). This is important because it does not disrupt sleep as severely; a side effect of stimulants (Allen et al., 2005). In addition, the low selectivity for dopamine means that the nucleus accumbens is not affected as severely as with stimulants, so there is less potential for abuse of this drug (Allen et al., 2005). | Non stimulants are also prescribed to treat ADHD. An example is Atomoxetine, which has high selectivity for noradrenergic reuptake transporters and low selectivity for dopaminergic transporters in the nucleus accumbens, thereby increasing norepinephrine specifically in the prefrontal cortex (Allen et al., 2005). This is important because it does not disrupt sleep as severely; a side effect of stimulants (Allen et al., 2005). In addition, the low selectivity for dopamine means that the nucleus accumbens is not affected as severely as with stimulants, so there is less potential for abuse of this drug (Allen et al., 2005). | ||
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| + | ===== Conclusions and Future Implications ===== | ||
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| =====References===== | =====References===== | ||
| - | 5 Most Common Adderall Addiction Signs. (2016). Amphetamines.com. Retrieved 24 October 2016, from http://amphetamines.com/types/adder... | + | |
| + | 5 Most Common Adderall Addiction Signs. (2016). Amphetamines.com. Retrieved 24 October 2016, from http://amphetamines.com/types/adderall/5-common-adderall-addiction-signs/ | ||
| Allen, A., Kurlan, R., Gilbert, D., Coffey, B., Linder, S., & Lewis, D. et al. (2005). Atomoxetine treatment in children and adolescents with ADHD and comorbid tic disorders. Neurology, 65(12), 1941-1949. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000188869.58300.a7 | Allen, A., Kurlan, R., Gilbert, D., Coffey, B., Linder, S., & Lewis, D. et al. (2005). Atomoxetine treatment in children and adolescents with ADHD and comorbid tic disorders. Neurology, 65(12), 1941-1949. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000188869.58300.a7 | ||
| - | American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. | + | Bailey, E. (2016). Rating Scales for Diagnosing ADHD. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.healthcentral.com/adhd/treatment-253024-5.html |
| - | Bailey, E. (2016). Rating Scales for Diagnosing ADHD. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.healthcentral.com/adhd/t... | ||
| Banerjee, T. D., Middleton, F. and Faraone, S. V. (2007), Environmental risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Pædiatrica, 96: 1269–1274. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00430.x | Banerjee, T. D., Middleton, F. and Faraone, S. V. (2007), Environmental risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Pædiatrica, 96: 1269–1274. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00430.x | ||
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| Cognitive Behavioural Therapy at Trio Psychology. (2016). Triopsychology.com. Retrieved 24 October 2016, from http://triopsychology.com/cbt | Cognitive Behavioural Therapy at Trio Psychology. (2016). Triopsychology.com. Retrieved 24 October 2016, from http://triopsychology.com/cbt | ||
| - | Conners, K. C. (2013). Conners Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scales. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.mhs.com/product.aspx?gr=... | + | Conners, K. C. (2013). Conners Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scales. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.mhs.com/product.aspx?gr=edu |
| Foley, M., McClowry, S. G., & Castellanos, F. X. (2008). The relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and child temperament. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(2), 157-169. | Foley, M., McClowry, S. G., & Castellanos, F. X. (2008). The relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and child temperament. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29(2), 157-169. | ||
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| Jensen, S. A., & Rosen, L. A. (2004). Emotional reactivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of attention disorders, 8(2), 53-61. | Jensen, S. A., & Rosen, L. A. (2004). Emotional reactivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of attention disorders, 8(2), 53-61. | ||
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| - | Levy, F., Hay, D.A., McStephen, M., et al.(1997). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36:737– 744. | + | Levy, F., Hay, D.A., McStephen, M., et al.(1997). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36:737– 744. |
| MEDICATION GUIDE RITALIN. (2013). Retrieved 14 October 2016, from http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/drugsafety/ucm089090.pdf | MEDICATION GUIDE RITALIN. (2013). Retrieved 14 October 2016, from http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/drugsafety/ucm089090.pdf | ||
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| Mossin, M., Aaby, J., Dalgard, C., Lykkedegn, S., Christesen, H., & Bilenberg, N. (2016). Inverse associations between cord vitamin D and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: A child cohort study. Australian & New Zealand Journal Of Psychiatry. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004867416670013 | Mossin, M., Aaby, J., Dalgard, C., Lykkedegn, S., Christesen, H., & Bilenberg, N. (2016). Inverse associations between cord vitamin D and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: A child cohort study. Australian & New Zealand Journal Of Psychiatry. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004867416670013 | ||
| - | Parents Know Your Rights About ADHD & Child Mental Disorders | CCHR International. (2012). CCHR International. Retrieved 24 October 2016, from https://www.cchrint.org/issues/chil... | + | Parents Know Your Rights About ADHD & Child Mental Disorders | CCHR International. (2012). CCHR International. Retrieved 24 October 2016, from https://www.cchrint.org/issues/childmentaldisorders/ |
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| + | Pedersen, N. L., McClearn, G. E., Plomin, R. and Nesselroade, J. R. (1992), Effects of early rearing environment on twin similarity in the last half of the life span. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10: 255–267. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.1992.tb00576.x | ||
| Pliszka, S. R., McCracken, J. T., & Maas, J. W. (1996). Catecholamines in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(3), 264-272. | Pliszka, S. R., McCracken, J. T., & Maas, J. W. (1996). Catecholamines in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(3), 264-272. | ||
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| Schneider, M., Retz, W., Coogan, A., Thome, J., & Rösler, M. (2006). Anatomical and functional brain imaging in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—a neurological view. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 256(1), i32-i41. | Schneider, M., Retz, W., Coogan, A., Thome, J., & Rösler, M. (2006). Anatomical and functional brain imaging in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—a neurological view. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 256(1), i32-i41. | ||
| - | Sherman, C. (2015). Can Brain Scans Help Diagnose ADHD? Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/art... | + | Sherman, C. (2015). Can Brain Scans Help Diagnose ADHD? Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/article/783-3.html |
| Sherzada, Awista (2012) "An Analysis of ADHD Drugs: Ritalin and Adderall," JCCC Honors Journal: Vol. 3: Iss. 1, Article 2. Available at: http://scholarspace.jccc.edu/honors_journal/vol3/iss1/2 | Sherzada, Awista (2012) "An Analysis of ADHD Drugs: Ritalin and Adderall," JCCC Honors Journal: Vol. 3: Iss. 1, Article 2. Available at: http://scholarspace.jccc.edu/honors_journal/vol3/iss1/2 | ||
| + | Spencer, T., Adler, L., McGough, J., Muniz, R., Jiang, H., & Pestreich, L. (2007). Efficacy and Safety of Dexmethylphenidate Extended-Release Capsules in Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity | ||
| + | Disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61(12), 1380-1387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.032 | ||
| - | Spencer, T., Adler, L., McGough, J., Muniz, R., Jiang, H., & Pestreich, L. (2007). Efficacy and Safety of Dexmethylphenidate Extended-Release Capsules in Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61(12), 1380-1387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.032 | + | The Brain—Lesson 3—Drugs Change the Way Neurons Communicate (Page 1 of 2). (2016). Science.education.nih.gov. Retrieved 24 October 2016, from https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/addiction/guide/lesson3-1.html |
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| Tripp, G. & Wickens, J. (2008). Research Review: Dopamine transfer deficit: a neurobiological theory of altered reinforcement mechanisms in ADHD. Journal Of Child Psychology And Psychiatry, 49(7), 691-704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01851.x | Tripp, G. & Wickens, J. (2008). Research Review: Dopamine transfer deficit: a neurobiological theory of altered reinforcement mechanisms in ADHD. Journal Of Child Psychology And Psychiatry, 49(7), 691-704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01851.x | ||
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| Wodka, E. L., Mark Mahone, E., Blankner, J. G., Gidley Larson, J. C., Fotedar, S., Denckla, M. B., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2007). Evidence that response inhibition is a primary deficit in ADHD. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 29(4), 345-356. | Wodka, E. L., Mark Mahone, E., Blankner, J. G., Gidley Larson, J. C., Fotedar, S., Denckla, M. B., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2007). Evidence that response inhibition is a primary deficit in ADHD. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 29(4), 345-356. | ||
