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| After invasion, the epithelial cells release proinflammatory cytokines (Gianella, 1996). Cytokines simply regulate host responses to invasions, infections, immune responses and trauma. Proinflammatory cytokines promote inflammation and can often aid in disease progression. In the case of salmonella, this inflammatory response causes diarrhea and can even lead to ulceration and destruction of the mucus membrane. The salmonella bacteria can also leave the intestines and go on to affect many other organs and tissues (Dinarello, 2002). | After invasion, the epithelial cells release proinflammatory cytokines (Gianella, 1996). Cytokines simply regulate host responses to invasions, infections, immune responses and trauma. Proinflammatory cytokines promote inflammation and can often aid in disease progression. In the case of salmonella, this inflammatory response causes diarrhea and can even lead to ulceration and destruction of the mucus membrane. The salmonella bacteria can also leave the intestines and go on to affect many other organs and tissues (Dinarello, 2002). | ||
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| + | ====Class C- Hantavirus==== | ||
| + | Class C contain biological weapons that are not considered as significant of a threat as class A or B. They have the potential of leading into cases of morbidity. There is not as much of an emphasis put towards public health preparation with this class, only non-specific preparedness. An example of a class C agent would be hantavirus. | ||
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| + | Hantavirus is a rodent-borne enveloped RNA virus which is often found in their urine, saliva or droppings (Schmaljohn et al., 1985). It can be transmitted through inhalation of saliva or urine droplets, it can also be acquired through the dust of their feces (Yi., 2013). If contaminated material is able to enter the body, then transmission is likely to occur. A disease caused by Hantavirus is Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS). Symptoms of this disease show within 1-5 weeks of infection, they affect the lungs and can result in severe respiratory failure and death (Safronetz, 2014). Another common disease caused by this virus is Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). This is also known as korean hemorrhagic fever and its incubation period is roughly 2 to 4 weeks (Markotic, 2002). | ||
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| + | __Pathogenesis__ | ||
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| + | There is not a full understanding of the pathophysiology of HPS, this is mainly due to the lack of disease models to experiment on. However, recent studies have attempted to investigate the pathogenesis of the hantavirus in order to gain a better understanding of it’s fatal consequences and modes of actions. It is hypothesized that the viruses disease progression is related to damaging host immune response (Safronetz et al., 2014). | ||
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| + | Another study investigated both HPS and HFRS and have concluded that both diseases result from defects in blood vessel permeability and platelet function (Mackow et al., 2001). They have found that beta-3-integrins increase risk of the diseases. Beta-3-integrins are a class of receptor proteins involved with adhesion, they play a critical role in regulating vascular permeability and platelet activation and these receptors can be used by hantavirus to promote pathogenesis (Mackow et al., 2001). | ||
| ======History of Biological Weapons====== | ======History of Biological Weapons====== | ||
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| ======References====== | ======References====== | ||
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| + | Biological warfare and bioterrorism: a historical review. In Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings (Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 400-406). Taylor & Francis. | ||
| CDC. (2015). Anthrax. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/basics/index.html | CDC. (2015). Anthrax. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/basics/index.html | ||
| CDC. (2018). Food Borne Illness and Germs. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/foodborne-germs.html | CDC. (2018). Food Borne Illness and Germs. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/foodborne-germs.html | ||
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| + | Christopher, L. G. W., Cieslak, L. T. J., Pavlin, J. A., & Eitzen, E. M. (1997). Biological warfare: a historical perspective. Jama, 278(5), 412-417. | ||
| Demirev, P. A., Feldman, A. B., & Lin, J. S. (2005). Chemical and biological weapons: current concepts for future defenses. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, 26(4), 321-333. | Demirev, P. A., Feldman, A. B., & Lin, J. S. (2005). Chemical and biological weapons: current concepts for future defenses. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, 26(4), 321-333. | ||
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| Government of Canada. (2018) Biological Weapons. Retrieved from https://international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/peace_security-paix_securite/biological-biologique.aspx?lang=eng | Government of Canada. (2018) Biological Weapons. Retrieved from https://international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/peace_security-paix_securite/biological-biologique.aspx?lang=eng | ||
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| + | Harris, S. H. (2002). Factories of death: Japanese biological warfare, 1932-1945, and the American cover-up. Psychology Press. | ||
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| + | Henderson, D. A., Inglesby, T. V., Bartlett, J. G., Ascher, M. S., Eitzen, E., Jahrling, P. B., ... & O'toole, T. (1999). Smallpox as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. Jama, 281(22), 2127-2137. | ||
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| + | Hodivala-Dilke, K. (2008). αvβ3 integrin and angiogenesis: a moody integrin in a changing environment. Current opinion in cell biology, 20(5), 514-519. | ||
| Holter, H. (1959). Pinocytosis. In International review of cytology (Vol. 8, pp. 481-504). Academic Press. | Holter, H. (1959). Pinocytosis. In International review of cytology (Vol. 8, pp. 481-504). Academic Press. | ||
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| + | Hugh‐Jones, M. (1992). Wickham Steed and German biological warfare research. Intelligence and National Security, 7(4), 379-402. | ||
| Infection Landscapes. (2013). Anthrax. Retrieved from http://www.infectionlandscapes.org/2013/08/anthrax.html. | Infection Landscapes. (2013). Anthrax. Retrieved from http://www.infectionlandscapes.org/2013/08/anthrax.html. | ||
| John’s Hopkins Center for Public Health Preparedness (n.d). Biological Weapons. Retrieved from https://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-public-health-preparedness/tips/topics/Biologic_Weapons/BioWeapons.html | John’s Hopkins Center for Public Health Preparedness (n.d). Biological Weapons. Retrieved from https://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-public-health-preparedness/tips/topics/Biologic_Weapons/BioWeapons.html | ||
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| + | Kadlec, R. P., Zelicoff, A. P., & Vrtis, A. M. (1997). Biological weapons control: prospects and implications for the future. Jama, 278(5), 351-356. | ||
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| + | Mackow, E. R., & Gavrilovskaya, I. N. (2001). Cellular receptors and hantavirus pathogenesis. In Hantaviruses (pp. 91-115). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. | ||
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| + | Markotic, A., Gagro, A., Dasic, G., Kuzman, I., Lukas, D., Nichol, S., ... & Dekaris, D. (2002). Immune parameters in hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome during the incubation and acute disease: case report. Croatian medical journal, 43(5), 587-590. | ||
| Newman, T. (2018, February 28). Biological weapons and bioterrorism: Past, present, and future. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321030.php | Newman, T. (2018, February 28). Biological weapons and bioterrorism: Past, present, and future. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321030.php | ||
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| + | Norris, J. (1977). " East or West?" The Geographic Origin of the Black Death. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 51(1), 1. | ||
| Petro, J. B., Plasse, T. R., & McNulty, J. A. (2003). Biotechnology: impact on biological warfare and biodefense. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, 1(3), 161-168. | Petro, J. B., Plasse, T. R., & McNulty, J. A. (2003). Biotechnology: impact on biological warfare and biodefense. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, 1(3), 161-168. | ||
| Raetz, C. R., & Whitfield, C. (2002). Lipopolysaccharide endotoxins. Annual review of biochemistry, 71(1), 635-700. | Raetz, C. R., & Whitfield, C. (2002). Lipopolysaccharide endotoxins. Annual review of biochemistry, 71(1), 635-700. | ||
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| + | Robertson, A. G., & Robertson, L. J. (1995). From asps to allegations: biological warfare in history. Military medicine, 160(8), 369-373. | ||
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| + | Safronetz, D., Prescott, J., Feldmann, F., Haddock, E., Rosenke, R., Okumura, A., ... & Scott, D. P. (2014). Pathophysiology of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in rhesus macaques. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(19), 7114-7119. | ||
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| + | Schmaljohn, C. S., Hasty, S. E., Dalrymple, J. M., LeDuc, J. W., Lee, H. W., Von Bonsdorff, C. H., ... & Regnery, H. L. (1985). Antigenic and genetic properties of viruses linked to hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Science, 227(4690), 1041-1044. | ||
| Tasota, F. J., Henker, R. A., & Hoffman, L. A. (2002). Anthrax as a biological weapon: an old disease that poses a new threat. Critical care nurse, 22(5), 21-34. | Tasota, F. J., Henker, R. A., & Hoffman, L. A. (2002). Anthrax as a biological weapon: an old disease that poses a new threat. Critical care nurse, 22(5), 21-34. | ||
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| WHO. (2019). Frequently asked questions regarding the deliberate use of biological agents and chemicals as weapons. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/csr/delibepidemics/faqbioagents/en/ | WHO. (2019). Frequently asked questions regarding the deliberate use of biological agents and chemicals as weapons. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/csr/delibepidemics/faqbioagents/en/ | ||
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| + | Yi J, Xu Z, Zhuang R, Wang J, Zhang Y, Ma Y, Liu B, Zhang Y, Zhang C, Yan G, Zhang F, Xu Z, Yang A, Jin B (2013). "Hantaan virus RNA load in patients having hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome: correlation with disease severity". J. Infect. Dis. 207(9): 1457–61. doi:10.1093/infdis/jis475. PMID 22869912. | ||
